Attentional Blink, Change Blindness, and the Monkey Illusion - Concentration plays a crucial role in practicing and making music. However, making music demands significantly more functions of attention than just perception and concentration. This is about the neuropsychology of attention and the effects that every musician should be aware of to practice and perform successfully.
Attention in Instrumental Playing - How to Practice Music Effectively
Phenomena and Illusions of Human Attention and Their Significance in Music Performance
Numerous phenomena and illusions in psychology demonstrate how limited human attention can be: 1) In the amount of stimuli that can be processed simultaneously or sequentially, and 2) In the ability to perform multiple tasks at once.
Attentional Blink:
When we shift our attention from one thing to another sequentially, it sometimes leads to us missing one of the two. This phenomenon is known as the "Attentional Blink." The reason behind this effect is that the brain requires time to shift the focus of attention (the "spotlight") and, at the same time, nerve cells need a certain recovery time (the "refractory period").
This effect is frequently observed in music performance, especially when dealing with unfamiliar or challenging material. One focuses on a particular passage or problem and, in turn, makes mistakes in the subsequent passage (or even the one following it). As a result, people often mistakenly identify the unsuccessful passage as the issue when, in fact, the problem lies in the neighboring passage.
Monkey Illusion:
The Monkey Illusion is a classic psychological experiment that clearly illustrates our limited capacity to perceive all stimuli in our environment. The brain continually filters stimuli based on importance, influenced by instincts (threatening stimuli), salience (the conspicuous distinctiveness of a stimulus), and learning experience. Particularly, when we concentrate intensely on one thing, we tend to overlook other things, as demonstrated by the Monkey Illusion.
For instrumental playing, it is crucial to be aware that we often miss things when we intensely focus on one aspect. For example, when we concentrate on phrasing, intonation may suffer, or when we focus on our own part, we might miss details in other voices. The ability for crossmodal integration and a broader spatial attentional focus, therefore, are particularly important to train.
Change Blindness:
Change blindness refers to the phenomenon where individuals, when concentrating on a specific task, frequently fail to notice changes in their surroundings.
As with the Monkey Illusion, the cause lies in the fact that the brain, at that moment, focuses on a specific task and seemingly unimportant stimuli are filtered out. For example, if you're searching for me as a red-haired individual in a crowded train station and are intensely looking for someone with red hair, I might be standing right next to you, calling your name three times, before you realize it's me, as I'm wearing a hat.
Types of Attention in Psychology
In experimental psychology, also referred to as "General Psychology," as it deals with fundamental aspects of human experience and behavior, attention is divided into various subfunctions. In clinical neuropsychology, which involves the treatment of cognitive symptoms following neurological conditions like a stroke, attention functions are often affected. This is why there are several tests available to assess these functions. During my many years of work at a neuropsychological day clinic for the rehabilitation of neurological disorders, I examined and treated numerous patients with such issues.
Selective Attention
Selective attention refers to what we commonly call "concentration." It involves a state in which we focus on one thing and strive to perform that task as effectively, quickly, and error-free as possible (e.g., "I want to intonate this passage accurately"). Frequently, this requires filtering out other irrelevant information. A typical test for selective attention is the "d2" test, in which the task is to quickly and with as few errors as possible, cross out all instances of "d" with two dashes while ignoring all other variations of characters. Similar to other human abilities, healthy individuals exhibit varying degrees of competence in this task.
Divided Attention
Divided attention refers to what we commonly call "multitasking." As the term implies, it involves concentrating on two different tasks simultaneously. Unfortunately, the brain cannot engage in genuine multitasking of conscious cognitive tasks. What we do instead is very rapid "switch-tasking," which means switching between the two tasks (e.g., "I want to play this passage from memory while simultaneously optimizing dynamics and relaxing my body"). Typically, in neuro-rehabilitation, I administered a divided attention task from the "Attention Assessment Battery" to patients, where they had to respond to both visual stimuli (specific numbers in a number sequence) and occasional auditory stimuli.
Alertness, Vigilance, and Sustained Attention
These three functions describe the intensity of attention. Alertness, as a general state of wakefulness, serves as the foundation for all other attention functions and is often examined through the general reaction time to simple stimuli. Vigilance is the ability to maintain readiness to react, even in very monotonous conditions with rare stimuli. Sustained attention pertains to the ability to maintain a focused state for an extended period. These fundamental functions are frequently affected or altered following brain disorders, as well as conditions like chronic fatigue syndrome, long COVID, and neuropsychological developmental disorders such as ADHD and autism.
Crossmodal Integration
Crossmodal integration is a borderline case between attention and perception functions. It involves processing stimuli from different sensory modalities (e.g., hearing and touch) as a unified whole. This function is particularly relevant in instrumental playing, where, for example, the instrument's spatial orientation, auditory impressions, and sheet music must be integrated and aligned. Integrating various senses (hearing, seeing, tactile perception, bodily awareness) and different musical aspects simultaneously can sometimes be better achieved holistically (crossmodal) than serially through switch-tasking.
Spatial Attention
Spatial attention can be likened to the visual field of the eyes. It's the spatial extent of attention, primarily in vision and hearing. This attention can be readily shifted in space through eye movements or sensory stimuli from the corresponding direction. It's more challenging to willfully shift attention to another part of the space without changing the direction of gaze. A typical neurological disorder following a right-sided stroke is (visual) neglect (see below).
Flexibility, Impulse Control, and Working Memory
These three functions also lie on the border of attention and are often considered part of executive functions. Attentional flexibility is necessary for shifting between different attentional targets, in other words, adjusting the so-called "spotlight" of attention. Impulse control is assessed with "Go-NoGo" tests, where individuals must not respond to stimuli following specific target stimuli. For instance, one must respond to every 3 but not if a 5 appears on the screen before it. Working memory refers to the ability to temporarily hold information in memory and manipulate it. We rely on it, for example, for mathematical calculations.
Neuropsychology of Attention - left and right brain
Neglect, Language, and Music Attention, especially spatial attention, is one of the brain functions that science has come to understand better through neurological patients. Patients with a neurological injury on the right side of the brain in the parietal lobe, often due to a stroke affecting one of the arteries on the right side, frequently exhibit a condition known as "neglect." Despite having intact senses and sensory centers in the brain, these patients neglect one half of the world and overlook stimuli on that side. The most common form is visual neglect: although patients do not have visual or visual field impairments, they perceive only half of the world, considering it entirely normal. When asked to draw a clock, they typically only draw half a clock or squeeze all the numbers into one half. Sometimes, those affected also neglect one half of the auditory world or their own body. Unlike a visual impairment or hemiplegia, these patients can be taught to regain awareness of this side of the world through intentional shifting of attention (usually by looking in that direction). Hence, these patients make it clear that perceiving sensory stimuli, whether through sight or hearing, is not solely determined by the senses. Without attention, stimuli remain unnoticed.
In general, neurological patients' symptoms and deficits often provide valuable clues regarding the location of brain damage. Typical strokes affecting larger brain arteries typically lead to unilateral damage. When the left hemisphere (as viewed from the person's perspective) is affected, there are common impairments in language functions, speech, paralysis of the right side of the body, and a brain-related visual field defect on the right side. On the other hand, a stroke predominantly affecting the right hemisphere leads to impairments in the left side of the body and the left visual field, often accompanied by neglect or other attention disorders. Sometimes, especially in right-sided strokes, musical perception functions may be affected. However, these cases are much rarer than language disorders or paralysis. Since music perception involves many centers throughout the brain, a stroke typically affects only a small portion of them. In my work with neurological patients in rehabilitation, I only recall one case of impaired musical perception. It is possible that some cases went unnoticed if the individuals were less musically inclined and therefore did not notice such issues.
Tips for Optimizing Attention during Practice and Music Performance
Numerous studies in music physiology and the neuroscience of playing music have shed light on the most effective forms of practice and attentional control for successful practice and performance. Here are some key tips to help you make the most of your attention during practice and playing:
Focusing Attention on the Effect of Motion Rather Than the Motion Itself (Duke et al., 2011): This approach suggests directing your attention to the outcome or result of your movements, such as the sound produced by your instrument, rather than fixating on the mechanics of the movement itself. As studies have shown, this shift in focus can lead to more effective practice and performance. Additionally, it can be beneficial in managing performance anxiety.
Maintaining a Distal, Peripheral External Focus of Attention Instead of an Internal or Central Focus (Duke et al., 2011): An external focus of attention, directed outward to the periphery, can improve your performance. It means concentrating on elements in your environment rather than inwardly. This can also be helpful in dealing with stage fright or performance anxiety.
"Circling Attention" - Willfully Shifting Attention to Different Aspects of Music and Execution: This practice involves intentionally directing your attention to various aspects of the music and performance, regularly shifting between them. By doing so, you prevent over-focusing on a single aspect and ensure that you don't miss other aspects due to overly selective attention. This approach promotes a well-rounded and comprehensive understanding of your music.
Incorporate the Surrounding Measures into Error Analysis: When you identify problematic sections that consistently cause errors, consider the surrounding measures as well. (See also: Attentional Blink)
Focus on or Practice Integrating Different Senses and Aspects of Music into a Holistic Unit (See Crossmodal Integration): Training to integrate various sensory and musical elements into a unified whole can enhance your overall musical experience and attention control.
Practice in a Well-Rested, Alert State (See: Sleep - Why It's Indispensable for Musical Success): Practicing when you are well-rested and alert is crucial for optimal attention and performance. Sleep plays a fundamental role in your cognitive abilities and can significantly impact your attention functions.
Practice in a Low-Stimulation Environment: Minimize distractions by practicing in a low-stimulation environment with few potential sources of visual, auditory, or other disturbances. This helps you maintain focus and concentration during practice.
Ensure Adequate Nutrition and Hydration: Proper nutrition and hydration are essential because low blood sugar levels and dehydration can significantly impair brain functions, particularly attention functions. It's crucial to maintain optimal physical and mental condition for effective practice and performance. (see also: Superfoods for Musicians)
Sources:
Duke, R. A., Cash, C. D., & Allen, S. E. (2011). Focus of attention affects performance of motor skills in music. Journal of Research in Music Education, 59(1), 44-55.
Kaufmann, L., Nuerk, H. C., Konrad, K., & Willmes, K. (2007). Kognitive Entwicklungsneuropsychologie. Göttingen: Hogrefe.
Herrmann, M., & Münte, T. F. (2009). Lehrbuch der klinischen Neuropsychologie: Grundlagen, Methoden, Diagnostik, Therapie. W. Sturm (Ed.). Heidelberg: Spektrum Akademischer Verlag.
Müsseler, J., & Rieger, M. (Eds.). (2002). Allgemeine Psychologie (p. 404). Berlin: Spektrum Akademischer Verlag.
Zimmermann, P., & Fimm, B. (1992). Testbatterie zur Aufmerksamkeitsprüfung:(TAP). Psytest.(https://www.psytest.net/de/testbatterien/tap/tests)
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